Gold nanoparticles have been increasingly used in medicine lately to diagnose and treat diseases. However, researchers keep arguing their possible toxicity and ability to cause mutations. Experts at Razumovsky Saratov State Medical University; and the Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Plants and Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, decided to check the influence of cold nanoparticles on the erythrocyte development process that can serve as an indicator of mutagenesis. The study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, and the Federal Task Programs “The Development of Scientific Potential of Higher School of Education” and “Scientific and Pedagogical Resources of Innovative Russia for 2009-2013”, as well as a grant of the President of the Russian Federation.

Researches testing the toxicity of gold nanoparticles on animals are few and the results they show are inconsistent. The Saratov-based researchers used rats that they were feeding daily for seven days with collaurin particles 16 and 55 nanometer in diameter, as well as hollow silicon nanoparticles coated with gold 160 nanometer in diameter. The particle suspension was prepared by dissolving them in one millilitre of saline so that the gold swallowed by the rats weighed 57 microgram per day. After a week, immature polychromatocytes that did not yet lose their nuclei were taken from the red bone marrow — that serves to produce red blood cells — of the rats for analysis. The mutagenicity of the nanoparticles was assessed based on the appearance of the cells. That is a standard and relatively simple test used to check for mutagenicity — if the cells are influenced by mutagens they show additional micronuclei. The research showed that gold nanoparticles 16, 55 and 160 nanometer in diameter that were introduced in the body using the aforementioned approach did not cause mutations.

It is a known fact that the effect of the particles on the DNA depends on their size — the smaller the particle is the higher the probability for it to cause mutations. For example, tiny particles of 1.4 nanometer in diameter can bind with the DNA and affect genes. Bearing this in mind, the researchers believe that they need to continue their studies in order to gather more detailed information on possible toxic effect of gold nanoparticles of various sizes.

Source of information:

D. S. Dzhumgazieva at al.: “Studying the Mutagenic Action of Gold Nanoparticles in a Micronucleus Test.” The Bulletin Of Experimental Biology And Medicine, 2011, #6.

Interviewed by Natalia Reznik, published by STRF.ru

A group of researchers at Dagestan State University has managed to synthesise cuprite nanoparticles using an electrochemical method. They report their discovery in an article currently in print, issue #7–8 of the Russian Nanotechnologies.

Cuprous oxide – Cu₂O, or cuprite — is a rather promising material for solar power engineering. In its main form, cuprite electrons — just like all other semiconductors — fill the valence band with excitation (energy transferring externally) resulting in a shift into the conductivity band. At that, electrons cannot have the intermediate energy for both zones; the width of this forbidden zone for cuprite reaches 2.0–2.2 eV. In turn, visible light photons have from 1.6 to 3.1 eV which means that their interaction with the electrons allows them to transfer the energy sufficient for a shift into the conductivity band. Due to this ability, cuprite can effectively turn solar radiation into electricity which, together with its inexpensive price, makes Cu₂O a rather promising photovoltaic material.

Copper electrodes are used as anodes and cathodes for electrolysis with the current flowing between them through a saturated sodium chlorides water solution. The copper electrode dissolves in the process with a reddish Cu₂O sediment forming there. These properties of copper were used by the researchers at Dagestan State University. They paid special attention to experimenting with additional conditions of the synthesis. The study was conducted according to the Federal Task Program “Scientific and Pedagogical Resources of Innovative Russia for 2009-2013.

Cuprite synthesis was undertaken at various levels of hydrogen pressure. In all cases, the scanning electron microscopy and X-ray structural analysis proved that Cu₂O particles of high purity were generated. However, the specific surface area that can be quantified by the degree of chromium adsorption decreases with the pressure growth as the average particle size goes up from 8 to 36 nanometer. The known fact is that the surface area is inversely proportional to the particle size.

In addition, Cu₂O particles have good photocatalystic properties. Their presence results in the formation of active oxygen-containing agents that destroy dye molecules. Dark-blue chrome azo dye was used for photocatalysis experiments. Exposure to ultraviolet or daylight made the dye lose its colour, with the increase of the external pressure of the oxidiser — oxygen — the speed of decolouration grew as well. The resultant dependence between the decolouration speed and the oxygen pressure has a knee around the 0.4 megapascal which might suggest a side-effect of a film consisting of CuO bivalent copper oxide on the surface on the nanoparticles.

Thus, Russian researchers found the method of effective generation of Сu₂O photoactive nanoparticles. In addition, they studied the effect of external pressure on the size of nanoparticles and their photocatalystic properties.

Source of information:

А. B. Isaev, N. А. Zakargaeva, Z. М. Aliev: “The Electrochemical Synthesis of Сu₂O nanoparticles Under Pressure and the Study of Their Photocatalystic Activity.” The Russian Nanotechnologies, vol. 6, #7–8 (in print).

Interviewed by Petrov Mikhail, published by STRF.ru

A solar battery operation is based on the light getting on the photosensitive surface characterised with a “redundancy” of electrons, the latter start shifting into the next in-depth layer of the battery made of “electron-poor” materials. The electromotive force occurs which leads to the emergence of electric current. In fact the two layers interact as electrodes of a regular battery.

Search for materials fit to make solar batteries is of great interest for researchers. Materials based on one-layer carbon nanotubes are considered promising. However, up until now all attempts to use nanotubes for these purposes were unsuccessful as their ability to conduct electric current is highly dependent on the method of production which influences their structure to a great extent.

The study conducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and published at the Nature Nanotechnology shows that composite materials consisting of carbon nanotubes, viruses and titanium oxides can ensure a significant (by 10.6 per cent!) increase in efficiency of capturing electrons from the solar battery element surface.

It was discovered that genetically modified M13 bacteriophages (bacteria-contaminating viruses) can be used to control the spatial organisation of the nanotube groups conducting electric current.

The technology works as follows: The М13 virus consists of a single nucleic acid chain (DNA) and a protein capsule (a capsid). And in this case, the capsid is the one bearing the importance. It is built of multiple similar proteins coded with viral genes. Such uniform structure of the viral surface can be compared to parquet elements repeating. By modifying the genes of the proteins the researchers managed to give the protein chain monomers the ability to bind nanotubes. Each virus could “hold” from five to 10 nanotubes with every nanotube being captured with 300 viral proteins. The use of the technology allows to prevent the nanotubes from sticking together. It is very important as this sticking together was the main reason for the decrease in their conductivity.

In addition, the researchers managed to “ensure” that the М13 virus helps in the next solar batteries production stage — in creating a titanium dioxide photosensitive layer on the surface of the nanotubes. Changes in the medium acidity make the virus interact with the titanium dioxide so that the TiO₂ molecules get in the direct proximity of the nanotubes and can freely shift there the electrons emerging after exposure to solar light.

Another fact very important from the production implementation perspective is that all procedures can be performed in an aqueous medium and at room temperature.

The technology results in an increase in solar power conversion efficiency by 10.6 per cent, with the total weight of viruses and nanotubes being under 0.1 per cent of the battery element mass. The researchers believe that this approach will allow for even better performance in the future.

Source of infoormation:

Xiangnan Dang,, Hyunjung Yi,, Moon-Ho Ham,, Jifa Qi,, Dong Soo Yun,, Rebecca Ladewski,, Michael S. Strano,, Paula T. Hammond &  & Angela M. Belcher.. Virus-templated self-assembled single-walled carbon nanotubes for highly efficient electron collection in photovoltaic devices. Nature Nanotechnology. Published online 24 April 2011 doi:10.1038/nnano.2011.50.

Interviewed by Shcheglov Ilya, published by STRF.ru

Researchers at the A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Heteroorganic Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, are developing catalyst systems, which will be implemented by the biggest European pharmaceutical companies and will probably lead to changes in industrial standards for vitamin and drug production. These systems are supposed to help in increasing pharmacologic composites purity and in decreasing the final output cost. The effort is being performed within the scope of one of the largest innovative projects of the EU 7^th Framework program - Polycat. Its amount of financing is about €7 million. Along with Russian scientists, research on the project is carried out by groups from Germany, the UK, France, Holland, Finland, Greece and other European countries.

Europeans are concerned with the state of chemical manufacturing. According to experts’ estimates, while it is swiftly changing all over the world – moving towards ecological compatibility and lower cost value, the reverse processes can be sometimes observed in conservative Europe: raw materials are becoming more expensive, energy resources costs are growing, increasing safety requirements are not always met by industries. To reverse the situation, the EU 7^th Framework program supported the Polycat project which has a considerable budget even by Western standards - €7 million. Project activities join fine organic chemistry, catalysis and engineering solutions. As a result, new chemical processes should be discovered, new reactor arrangements and commercial unit options should be developed, which will enable to improve chemical manufacturing. The research is being coordinated by the Mainz Institute of Microtechnology (Germany), 18 companies, academic institutes and universities are executors of the project. Two academic groups participate on behalf of Russia: researchers at the A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Heteroorganic Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, and at Tver State Technical University.

The group at the A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Heteroorganic Compounds synthesizes new dendrons and dendrimers and establishes magnetically-operated catalysts, which will enable to increase chemical processes efficiency. Head of the group of macromolecular chemistry at the A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Heteroorganic Compounds Zinaida Shifrina, one of coordinators of the Russian part, has been asked to talk in more detail about these complicated scientific problems.

Zinaida Shifrina: «Novelty of the  approach suggested by our group lies in utilization of magnetic nanoparticles along with catalytic particles in the same nanocomposite»

«A dendrimer is an individual superbranched molecule with a very heavy molecular weight, a dendron being its segment. Unlike the majority of polymers, such molecule is monodisperse and has distinct structural characteristics. Novelty of the approach suggested by our group lies in utilization of magnetic nanoparticles along with catalytic particles in the same nanocomposite. Involvement of our highly thermostable dendrimers enables to apply high temperatures (~300^оС), which is sometimes necessary for some processes, and to get highly-ordered systems with characteristics under control», explained Zanaida Shifrina.

A step-by-step approach is the basic principle underlying dendrimer synthesis. This means that dendrimer molecule growth goes in stages, step by step, besides at each stage, molecular weight is increasing, and molecular composition is becoming more complicated, which requires involvement of new characterization methods and high chemist’s skill. It is not without reason that synthetic chemists who are able to synthesize dendrimer are sometimes called molecular designers.

This is how a dendrimer-stabilized nanoparticle looks like

The process was carried out as follows: first, the researchers synthesized dendron that was a branch of dendrimer and connected it to a magnetic nanoparticle, which had been obtained in advance via decomposition of iron compounds at a high temperature. A composite was formed, which, according to Zinaida Shifrina, looked very much like a dandelion, where a rosette was represented by the magnetic nanoparticle and white aigrettes – by dendrons.

«Based on such nanocomposite, we can create tailored surface layers due to further self-organization of molecules, explains Zinaida Shifrina. These layers have widespread application in microchannel reactors. These reactors are very efficient for catalysis as they require very insignificant quantities of catalysts, which are very expensive. If catalysts are stable, this being our aim, they are not entrained in the course of reactions. Microreactors are used for synthesis of complicated organic matter and pharmaceutical products, for example, vitamins».

At the next stage, salt of a noble metal – for example, platinum or palladium - is introduced into the composite. The salt is coordinated with certain dendron groups first, and then, as a result of reduction, turns into nanoparticles of metal stabilized inside the nanocomposite. This is how a high-quality catalyst system is being formed.

Научный A specialist is controlling dendrimer synthesis with the help of  thin-layer chromatography

A large review prepared by head of the group at the A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Heteroorganic Compounds Ludmilla Bronshtein and Zinaida Shifrina and supported by the Polycat project, has already been published at the Chemical Reviews – a respected international journal with 35.9 impact-factor. Individual research papers written according to the results of research by the group at the A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Heteroorganic Compounds will certainly appear as well, although, according to the researchers, this will require some time. To tell the scientific community in detail about the process of making new nanocomposites, the researchers need to obtain special permission from all participants to the project – the work involves interests of large trading companies that have invested vast sums of money into implementation of new concepts of changes in pharmaceutical output manufacturing technologies.

Interviewed by Bykova Natalia, published by STRF.ru

When people are born no spare parts are readily available for them. Soft tissue regeneration occurs quite fast but what about bone recovery? It was proved that implants — artificial bone replacements — were in use as long ago as some time BC. A piece of a mandibula of an Inca (6^th century BC) was found in modern Honduras, around the De Los Muertos plateau, bearing three dental implants made of sea mussel shells. A female skull belonging to the 1^st century BC, with a metal implant of the upper jaw canine was discovered in the province of Chantambre, France.

Packing of Gamaplant-paste-forte used to fill in bone defects

A human organism perceives any foreign body as hostile. Currently, up to 35 per cent of implants used in traumatic surgery result in rejection. That means that patients experience significant pain and face recurring operations. Human bone tissue consists mainly of hydroxyapatite nanocrystals (65 per cent) and collagen (25 per cent). It also includes specialised cells and proteins — growth factors. So the question is whether there is a way to increase the biocompatibility of implants and to make them as similar as possible to human bone tissues. Scientists and doctors have been attempting to address this task for decades now, which involved multiple approaches. A principally new technology was offered at the Gamaleya Research Institute for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences.

The Gamaleya Research Institute is famous for its advanced developments. It was here that Lev Zilber, a world renowned virologist and immunologist who discovered the tick-borne encephalitis virus, created his viral genetic theory of cancer origin which served as a foundation for modern cancer immunology. Alexander Fridenstein, leading immunohematology expert, corresponding member of Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, discovered stromal bone marrow stem cells while working at the Institute. His research of bone tissue recovery and transplantation helped to create Russian technologies for osteoplastic materials.

STRF.ru reference:
The Gamaleya Research Institute served as a lead agency in creating new-generation implants according to the project titled “The Development of Experimental-Industrial Technologies for the Generation of Hydroxyapatite/Collagen Composite Preparations/Coatings for Implant Materials” which was initiated by the Ministry of Education and Science within the Research and Development on Priority Directions for Russian Scientific and Technology Complex, 2007-2012 Federal Task Program. According to the contract stipulations the researchers acquired RUR140 million of funding and had three years to perform the work

New Generation Materials

The fundamental novelty of the implantation technology developed at the Gamaleya Research Institute is related to the introduction of proteins — growth factors and bone tissue regeneration factors — into the composite implant material, as well as to the creation of metal implants whose surface facilitates the retention of biocoating that is as close to bone tissue composition as possible and also contains growth factors. Due to the bone tissue growth factors the implant not only provides the foundation for the bone to grow on but also becomes an active agent initiating bone tissue formation.

Spine pedicle fixation screw with a composite preparation/coating

Until today, no medicines of such kind were manufactured in this country. Bone tissue growth factors were generated based on genetic engineering approach in the laboratory of biologically active nanostructures at the Gamaleya Research Institute led by Vladimir Lunin. In the US, medicines containing bone tissue growth factors and regeneration factors were approved for use since 2002. Up until recently, Russia lagged behind significantly in this area as morphogenetic bone proteins hold the leading positions in the list of medical innovations of primary importance.

The laboratory led by Lunin used the assistance of others. The basis of the implants — nanostructured titanium — was produced at Ufa State Aviation and Technical University. Today, pure titanium is the most promising and widely used substance for transplantation material. Theoretically, it is possible to increase its durability due to nickel alloy and other alloys but those, however, are toxic for the body. Therefore, extra durability can be achieved using nanotechnologies that allow to change the titanium structure by crumbling the metal grain to bring it to nanosize, and ensure the Damascus steel effect. The difference is that nanostructured titanium is created not via forging but via drawing and rolling. As a result, the titanium product can be made very thin while preserving its durability. It is important for dental implants, for example — teeth experience significant loads, and large screws are impossible to install in the jaw due to its thinness. Titanium is not only durable but also rather light which is extremely important when an implant is intended to stay in the body for the whole life span of the patient.

Then, the nanostructured titanium is used to make precision titanium bars with checked geometry used by Moscow-based Konmet, CJSC, to produce dental implants. The implant surface is grit-blasted to create relief.

Experts of Iskra Innovation Research Centre, Ufa, working closely with local surgeons specialising in trauma and spine illnesses developed an original model of titanium implants for traumatology and orthopedics — a device intended to correct and fixate the spine. The device consists of a set of screws and pins that can be connected together into various constructions depending on the specifics of the trauma or the illness of a particular patient; the appliance is manufactured in Pushchino-on-Oka by Deost Scientific Production Association. Belgorod State University is responsible for modifying the surface of one of the screws — the one for the pediclefixation — to impart certain special properties to it. After that, a biocoating — the key technology aspect — is applied to the implant.

Increasing Biocompatibility

“When we commenced our research we knew from the available literature that we had to address three tasks at once, — said Vladimir Lunin. — We needed to create the surface optimal for the human body. First, the implant surface is hydrophobic — that is, its wettability must be ensured. Second, it has a negative charge which is not good either as the tissue cells are charged negatively as well. Thus, double repulsion occurs between the human cells and the implant surface due to the lack of wettability and similar charge. Third, a certain relief is required — that is, the surface should not be smooth.”

Gamaplant-paste-Forte composite medicine close to human bone tissue in properties is intended for filling bone defects and coating implants

Switzerland-based Straumann, the leading global manufacturer of dental implants, demonstrates the hydrophilism of the implant surface in its promotional brochures. Before the screw is processed using a special substance it “displaces” water when emerged in it, while after the processing a hydrophilic screw pulls the water upwards similar to a sheet of paper that absorbs water when one side of it is submerged into water. Swiss developers managed to create an implant showing a 10 millimetre “ascent” of liquid. The presentation offered to the Ministry of Education and Science commission shows a spine fixation screw with the surface processed using the microarc oxidation technology, or MAO, developed by the experts at Belgorod State University. Russian researchers managed to create an implant ensuring 30 mm liquid “ascent.” That is a significant achievement quite able to meet competition with global implant manufacturers.

Modern technologies make a broad use of changes in surface properties of materials. For example, similar surface wetting effect is implemented by Toyota to make car windows. Due to the creation of a hydrophilic film water spreads upon the glass without forming drops on the surface of the window. But here the researchers face a slightly different task of creating a large smooth surface whereas the implant, unlike car windows, should be as uneven as possible in order for the cells to “engage” to it. A principle of “sending a ball into a pit” applies in this case. A cell is about 20 micrometer in size; therefore, pits on the titanium surface should have slightly larger diameter for the cell to be able to “crawl” inside and “rest” there.

The technology used to create hydrophilic and uneven surface of titanium implants is based on the surface electrolytic processing in solutions containing hydroxyapatite, one of the main bone components. The method was adapted for the implants developed by the scientists at Belgorod State University in the course of the project; it is titled microarc oxidation, or MAO. It allows the hydroxyapatite atoms to penetrate the titanium structure. A gradient is created: the implant surface consists virtually of hydroxyapatite only with titanium atoms prevailing in the deeper layers. Due to the gradient structure, the surface becomes very durable which ensures that no desquamation of the surface layer occurs during screwdriving into the bone. This technological solution ensures not only high level of hydrophily (wettiness) of the material but also addresses the charge issue as this surface bears no charge — as well as the biocompatibility problem because hydroxyapatite is a generic substance for bone tissue. The task of attaching body cells “building” the bone to the implant surface gets addressed too — as well as the objective of the union of the newly generated bone and the implant. Electrolysis results in the formation of oxygen bubbles on the surface of the implant which facilitates the creation of porous structure presenting an ideal relief for the interaction between the implant and the body cells and bone.

Bacteria-Made Bone Protein

Human bone tissue contains 20 bone morphogenetic proteins responsible for skeleton formation. “But we are unable to completely reproduce the nature, — said Anna Karyagina, leading scientific associate of the laboratory. — It is impossible to create 20 recombinant proteins similar to those synthesised in the human body, mix them up, put them in the right areas of the bone and properly “seal” them. Scientists model the main mechanism allowing the body to launch the regeneration processes fast and delivering the pre-manufactured building material based on one recombinant protein similar to the human one to the trauma spot.”

Chromatographic columns used to rectify protein samples

“When a bone brakes, it results in redistributing the bone tissue density around the spot of the break. Building material is delivered from the surrounding bones and after some time the spot of the break can become harder than the adjacent bone areas. For example, an arm brake leads to slower nail growth. And we here bring quality building material externally to the trauma area, that can be used by the organism immediately.”

Many medicines based on recombinant interferon are produced in this country. Unlike genetically modified food products that still face negative perception on the part of the consumers these medicines had more luck as they are broadly used in medical practice. To make bone tissue growth factors as well as interferons, bacteria are used. Due to a built-in human gene, the microorganisms begin the synthesis of a protein similar to that generated in the human body. When such protein gets into a human organism it is recognised as “friendly” and gets implemented in the bone along with the body own proteins. Growth factors facilitate the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells discovered by А. Ya. Fridenstein. They help growth, mobilisation of calcium and phosphorus from other cells, and accelerate blood vessel invasion. Thus, a layer of composite coating applied to the implant is used as a bait for the cells of the organism and as a building material to grow its own bone.

Medical and biological study of the developed medicines and implants with the calcium-phosphate coating was conducted on rats and other laboratory animals. In particular, a hole was drilled in a rat shin bone to insert a coating-covered implant. For the reference experiment, coating-free implant was used. In all experiments involving the calcium-phosphate coating, the implant invasion in the bone was much faster with the implants sitting tighter in the bone.

The laboratory animal keeping conditions should be also mentioned. The Gamaleya Research Institute has one of the best vivaria in the country which is even certified according to the European standard. Each animal has a cage of its own; there is an automatic system intended to feed the animals and to maintain all the optimal conditions. All that means that their living standards are nearly as high as those of the laboratory personnel that also receives extraordinary care. A cozy dining room has a refrigerator personally filled with various delicacies by the laboratory head.

The Main Objective of Attracting Specialists

The laboratory currently has 46 employees. Each of them is a specialist in his or her narrow field. The laboratory personnel all together is “capable of solving any problems within any time frames,” said the head of the laboratory.

Reports concerning the Ministry of Education and Science project. Reports for each project stage are provided in three copies weighing from five to eleven kilograms; reports also include documents supplied by seven co-executors involved in the project.

Researchers are the deficient aspect of Russian science today. “In the 1990s we had a redundancy of uncalled scientific personnel combined with the lack of reagents, equipment or space; today the situation we face is quite the opposite, — explained Vladimir Lunin. — Reagents and equipment are relatively cheap but we have an acute shortage of people capable of organising the process, building technological chains and creating an end-to-end technology process aimed at exploring a certain problem.”

The laboratory led by Vladimir Lunin has special people responsible only for developing and reconciling various paperwork. There are experts in economics, accounting, agreement drafting. The laboratory performed huge chunk of work in the stage of state certification of the developed medicines. The institute administration was stunned when the laboratory managed to walk the complete way from the start of medical trial to the medicine registration in just six months. All actions were performed according to a detailed daily schedule. It took as much effort to close the project too. All reports concerning just the final stage of the project weighed approximately 11 kilograms, and the complete stack of reports and technology documentation comprises a tightly packed filing cabinet.

The Institute receives patents for the technical developments together with the Ministry of Education and Science. However, many developments are impossible to cover with patents. According to Vladimir Lunin, “the simplest” technical solutions are preserved in the form of know-how.

The contract stipulated that the Institute built the production area to manufacture the composite substance intended for implant coating. The pilot batch production and quality control comply with the Good Manufacturing Practice. This international system of standards and rules was established specially for manufacturing medicines and medical products. According to the system, absolutely every production and medicine parameters are controlled — instead of checking random batches.

In November 2010, the developers received the registration certificate and the certificate of conformance for Gamalant-paste Forte composite medicine for bone transplantation and use jointly with metal implants. The medicine is expected to ship in February 2011.

A natural and important issue arises: who will organise training for doctors targeted at using this new generation substance? “We need to attract serious specialists understanding the necessity of such training, — said Vladimir Lunin. — This medicine cannot be introduced in medical practice through promotional leaflets. It must be applied strictly according the instructions, and that should be done by professional surgeons. Careless application of the medicine might result in outgrowths on the bone. If the medicine gets into a muscle, a bone can grow there as well. Fortunately, when the project work was nearing its ending there already were many surgeons who “understood” the medicine. Currently, we work with many departments of the N.N. Priorov Central Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopedics, and the Institute in question is already planning to start using the medicine.

The laboratory led by Lunin continues its work on new osteoplastic materials. The researchers are currently busy developing low-invasive forms — that is, the medicines that can be introduced directly to the spot of the break with a syringe or a catheter. If the break requires no metal constructions, and mere external fixation is enough but partial bone destruction is present in the picture such medicines can be injected there without further trauma for the organism. This research is conducted as a separate project funded by the Ministry of Industry and Trade. According to the contract, manufacturing facilities for the medicines are to be implemented at the Gamaleya Research Institute in 2011.

Interviewed by Novikov Vladislav, published by STRF.ru

The country needs special — synthetic specialists — supermen with the “nano-“ prefix. To this end, pupils at school should be already taught new technologies. The opinion was expressed by Doctor of Engineering, Director General of the Close Joint-Stock Company “Concern ‘Nanoindustry’”, Mikhail Ananian.

Mikhail Ananian: “The aim of setting up the Nanoindustry Career Guidance Center (NCGC) is to introduce to the mind of engineering community the notions of nanotechnology being a drastic remedy for domestic industry modernization”

STRF.ru reference:
Mikhail Arsenovich Ananian — Doctor of Engineering, President of the National Association of Nanoindustry, Director General, Close Joint-Stock Company “Concern ‘Nanoindustry’”. Production delivered by the Concern includes, inter alia, “Striboil” antiwear nanomodifier, nanotechnological complex based on scanning tunnel microscope “UMKA”, germicidal spray based on silver colloidal solution

Mikhail Arsenovich, despite the crisis, you put a notice on your organization’s site about hiring chemical engineers, designers, electronic engineers, programmers. What’s your assessment of staff training in the nanotechnology area?

— First of all, unexpectedly for myself, we received a stream of applications mainly from recent graduates. While reviewing their CVs, we took note of the following circumstance. For example, a person graduated from the institute with the “nano-“ prefix qualifications. Where is he/she employed now? At the bank. Another one deals with logistics. A third person sells something in a kiosk.

The following paradox took place: young hopefuls having qualification in nanotechnology are not in demand by industrial enterprises, as there are no specialists there who could pose a problem, introduce them into the world of real nanotechnologies, provide with necessary tools. Only a small part of them can find job at academic institutes or enter the PhD program. The rest have to work not as trained or try to go abroad. Several years ago, we discussed the problem with Academician Yuri Tretiakov, one of the most outstanding specialists in the nanotechnology area. “Yuri Dmitrievich, I said, you graduate about 25 top specialists a year. We have an offering to set up the Nanoelectronics Center in the town of Friazino. Let us take two of your groups of graduates and establish a powerful cluster at once?” He answered: “You see, they have a problem — no place to stay at. A lot of graduates go abroad”. Then we approached the Moscow Region governor with a letter requesting to build a dwelling house for recent graduates in the town of Friazino. Our hope was that they all would marry each other and in a couple of years we should have a team of nanotechnologist professionals. However, no answer followed.

According to the data of the trade union of researchers of Russia, within the last ten years, 500 to 800 thousand Russian researchers have found jos abroad, including those specialists who could have become the cream of domestic nanotechnology. Now that the government has declared that 100–150 thousand nanotechnologists will be trained by 2015, it is still necessary to find the way to provide them with jobs and to avoid losing them for future nanoindustry.

This is a rather unexpected aspect of the problem with staff for nanotechnologies. What should be done?

— Executives at the majority of enterprises in the area of machine building complex, power engineering, agro-industrial complex, construction material industry, housing and utilities infrastructure are not informed about nanotechnologies scientific and applied potential. Moreover, as a rule, they oppose vigorously any offers for possible cooperation even in terms of nanotechnologies application directly in their enterprises interest. This circumstance is to a large degree accounted for by the fact that trained technicians-and-engineers are absent, with few exceptions, from the enterprises. Owing to their qualification, technicians-and-engineers could have facilitated introduction of nanotechnology elements both into engineering processes and into the output. Accordingly, possessing equipment necessary for these purposes is absent. Therefore, nanotechnology innovative abilities are not built into new projects and developments, regulations and standards, thus ensuring more extensive lagging of basic industries behind the contemporary technology level.

It seems to me that the question regarding high-quality retraining for certified specialists at industrial enterprises, branch institutes and in social sphere has been ripe for a long time already. Probably, it should have been right to start with such retraining to prepare intellectual and engineering basis to accept recent graduates. We have been discussing the issue for years at all round-table meetings, conferences and in the press.

We decided to set up the Nanoindustry Career Guidance Center (NCGC) based on industrial park “Slava”. The aim of establishing the Center is to introduce to the mind of engineering society the notion of nanotechnology being a drastic remedy for domestic industry modernization. The Center will retrain specialists in the area of construction, farm enterprises and social sphere. Apparently, enterprises and scientific and industrial centers, and trade unions are interested in the Center activity. The Nanoindustry Career Guidance Center will start its work in 2010. Besides that, the Center will provide a program for remote specialist training, especially as we have substantial methodological support in the regions provided by eleven state universities that are members of the National Association of Nanoindustry.

How do you evaluate recent graduates who come to get a job at the Concern?

— Differently, in general. Part of them declares immediately that they expect career advancement and wage rise. Along with that, they are trying to minimize the time they spend on work. Their strong points are that almost all of them are advanced PC users and know foreign languages well. Unfortunately, the following psychological pattern is popular among the youth: to work no longer than a year at the same place. Therefore, when such specialists join a stable and hardworking group, within two months they begin to look for a job via the Internet to earn more money. All these “hoppers” learn little in the long run. They gain insignificant immediate benefit, no more than that — and will never become solid specialists.

STRF.ru reference:
 

In 2010, the Nanoindustry Career Guidance Center will start its work based on industrial park “Slava”. The Nanoindusty Career Guidance Center activity will be targeted at solving the following problems:
Analysis and generalization of experience in introducing nanotechnologies into industrial objects.

• Establishment of the system for information awareness, advocacy and distribution of such experience via utilization of the Internet multimedia facilities and educational technologies;
• Specialist retraining in basic industries, construction, farm enterprises and social spheres as regards to utilization of nanotechnologies potential, for making closed processing chains that ensure modernization primarily in industrial sector of domestic economy.

Organizations interested in the Nanoindustry Career Guidance Center activity are as follows:

• The enterprises that chose the way of manufacturing modernization and are headed by efficient owners;
• Scientific and industrial centers implementing promising long-term projects, the basis of which being the most up-to-date materials and technologies;
• Alliances of manufacturers and entrepreneurs, large trade unions that are interested in non-confrontational staff rotation and in changing specialization of closing or unpromising production;
• Administrative regional and municipal entities dealing with population employment issues, creation of new jobs attractive primarily to aboriginal population and youth, increasing economic efficiency of enterprises and their ecological safety based on modernization and integrated technical reequipping

Proceeding from these factors, our selection is rather strict, but those employees who stay are indeed carried away by their work, the more so because we set real-life problems for them. Success in solving the problems leads to career advancement, and future theses, and gradual social package extension.

Graduates of which institutes of higher education do you hire?

— Graduates from the Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow Power Engineering Institute (Technical University), Moscow Institute of Radio Engineering, Electronics and Automatics, Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys come for employment with our company. We have recently participated in the job fair at the Lomonosov Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology. 18 persons signed up for an interview with our company there. We shall see now, which of them we are going to hire.

Who do you still give preference to? Probably, to the ones who got specialized education on nanotechnologies?

— You know, everything is relative in this world. I believe that basic education is necessary but further specialization of a professional largely depends on his/her personal infatuation with work on “nanotechnology”. Multifactors of nanotechnology single it out as a specific area of interdisciplinary scientific and engineering knowledge. Therefore, training of respective research, engineering and worker staff requires developing non-traditional special educational programs of different levels. These are courses of lectures, laboratory work and learning aids for specialists wishing to get the second higher education. Then — the same is needed for retraining and refresher courses for teaching staff. The next level comprises students. And finally come optional classes for schoolchildren, students of technical schools, colleges and vocational training schools. Nano-elements are introduced to the largest possible extent into their physics, chemistry, biology and informatics curricula.

According to the current forecasts, the demand for specialists in the nanotechnology area in 2010–2015 will make at least 0.8–0.9 million persons in the USA, 0.5–0.6 million persons in Japan, 0.3–0.4 million persons in Europe, 0.1–0.2 million persons in the Pacific Region, and about 0.1 million persons — in other countries.

Russia has not been represented in these forecasts at all. We are significantly late with introducing “nanotechnology” special subject into higher education curricula. Now we need to catch up and to train future nanotechnologists literally from “the tender nail” as it is done in technologically advanced countries.

I would like to emphasize again that nanotechnologies evolution and implementation is a purely system task, and the technological breakthrough possibility in Russia will largely depend on training of a sort of “special mission units”, i.e., groups of highly skilled specialists, who have knowledge in such areas as physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, applied and computational mathematics, electrical engineering, material science, machine building. Training of such kind of systems engineers is an important task, which our higher education institutions practically have not been solving.

Besides developing special training programs, what other conditions are required for efficient staff training in the nanotechnology area?

— Nowadays, there is a principle weak point in the staff training system for nanotechnology area — there is no commercialization of affordable domestic scientific instruments and specialized equipment for mass student and schoolchildren audience. Purchased expensive imported devices and equipment are to a considerable degree intended not for training but for carrying out scientific research, which is undoubtedly important in its own way. However, students and all the more so schoolchildren are not allowed to work with this equipment as a rule. At that, a natural question arises — what shall we do in 3 to 5 years when the equipment purchased abroad becomes obsolete? Shall we thoughtlessly spend budgetary funds again?

The situation has specifically become the matter of argument at the meeting of chancellors and vice-chancellors of 18 state universities. The meeting was organized by the National Association of Nanoindustry jointly with the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation. The attendees’ general opinion is that it is necessary to organize systematic work to prepare complete sets of didactic materials, corresponding to specialization of a higher education institute, to develop and arrange industrial production of laboratory facilities accessible to students. In the framework of this effort, it seems reasonable to involve the leading researchers of universities from different regions as experts.

We would like the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation to hear these urging voices. And then, maybe it will think about development of learners’ guides and laboratory facilities for schoolchildren. Time will show …

Interviewed by Maria Morozova, published by STRF.ru

Experiments carried out at the A.A. Blagonravov Institute of Engineering Science (IMASH), Russian Academy of Sciences, have proved that instruments based on nanostructured composite made of zirconium oxide exceed steel analogues in terms of acuity and reliability. Specialists at the A.A. Blagonravov Institute of Engineering Science assume that in future the new material will press steel by a number of positions and will solidly capture its own niche in many industries. Valery Alisin - head of laboratory at the A.A. Blagonravov Institute of Engineering Science – describes researchers’ hopes related to zirconium.

Valery Alisin: “The nanostructured material based on zirconium oxide possesses a domain structure, there are no grain boundaries, that is why acuity degree of a scalpel made of it is several times higher. Such scalpel is practically everlasting»

STRF.ru reference:
The project entitled “Development of synthesis and processing technology for nanostructured composite materials based on zirconium oxide and production of pilot batches of details for triboengineering purposes” has been implemented by a number of research and medical institutions in the framework of the Federal Target Program “Research and development for priority directions in science and engineering for 2007–2012”. Parent organization – A.A. Blagonravov Institute of Engineering Science, Russian Academy of Sciences. Amount of financing – 100 million Rubles

The two-year gap

Why is it zirconium oxide that made the basis for new material synthesis?

– Machinery evolution dynamics is connected with the fact that machines are increasingly loaded as requirements to their capacity are constantly growing. One of the most important ways to promote growth of automated labor efficiency, and consequently, of technological advance as well, is connected with utilization of new materials. In the course of our project, the composite author consisting of specialists at the A.M. Prokhorov Institute of General Physics (Russian Academy of Sciences) and the A.A. Blagonravov Institute of Engineering Science (Russian Academy of Sciences) jointly with manufacturing enterprises were dealing with this task: the researchers were creating a new “tissue” – a composite material based on nanostructured crystals of partially stabilized zirconium oxide. Zirconium oxide was selected as a basis because it possesses very high fracture strength and a good combination of tribotechnical and strength characteristics that increase reliability and operational life of friction units. Omitting technical details of the process, I would say that the effort resulted in creation of nanostructured crystals and industrial production based on them. Then the researchers created wire die blanks for getting wire, journal bearing bushings, medical scalpels. All these diverse items underwent tests at departmental manufacturing.

Are there any similar technologies abroad?

– In my opinion, we have more efficient production engineering of materials: our materials are better in terms of mechanical properties characteristics, and their cost price is lower. Similar work is being also performed abroad, but we are ahead in terms of timing. Researchers abroad are only presenting publications on the research of analogous materials, but we are ready to start product manufacturing. Of course, it is very unfortunate that our time-resource will not last long: I estimate it as approximately the two-year gap, no more than that.

A nontraumatic scalpel

What is the gain of a specific item made of a new material, for example, a medical scalpel, as compared to its traditional analogue?      

– The scalpel is an instrument for cutting biological tissues, the quality of which is directly connected with the edge acuity, i.e., the sharper it is – the better. Scalpels are now made of steel, and piece items for ophthalmology – are made of diamond. An ordinary metal instrument is short-lived, it gets blunt quickly as metal has a grain structure and dissolves in human blood. The nanostructured material based on zirconium oxide has a domain structure, there are no grain boundaries, therefore, acuity degree of a of zirconium oxide scalpel is several times higher. Such a scalpel is practically everlasting as it is chemically inert and its acuity does not change upon any type of sterilization. It turns out that “nanoinstrument” is winning by two factors – acuity and operating life. Acuity ensures minimum traumatism in the course of a surgical operation, which results in quick healing and a thin and barely visible post-operative suture.

When will “nanoscalpels” enter mass production?

– In the first place, when funds are found for these purposes. I am sure that zirconium oxide scalpels in mass production will not differ much in price from metal ones. Actually, material consumption on the edge part makes a small percent of the entire instrument cost. If it is compared to diamond analogues, which are comparable to in operational properties to our scalpels, the nanoscalpel will be significantly less expensive.

We are certainly planning to promote the “nanoscalpel” into mass production, but first it is necessary to solve such concurrent issues as commercial brand formation and product cost. To transform a traditional scalpel is an excellent idea, however we live in the XXIst century after all and we do understand that original instruments have better prospects for attracting manufactures’ and consumers’ attention. They are at stake now: a new instrument is being developed jointly with the Limited Liability Company «New Power Technologies» – bipolar electrosurgical scissors with inserts made of partially stabilized zirconium oxide crystals, which enable to make practically bloodless operations due to application of a certain electric field. If a patient is operated by this instrument, he/she will recover sooner and will be discharged from hospital quicker. The work related to these scissors is executed jointly with medical workers, specifically the ones from the Moscow Regional Research Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Moscow Medical Academy named after I.M. Sechenov, and other medical facilities.

What do you think, is the industry ready to manufacture zirconium-oxide-based items?

– As basic issues have been solved, it means that manufacturing can be rolled out. Nevertheless, there are certainly some nuances: it is required to reorient enterprises to innovative product release, to establish information processes for engineers and students to convince everybody that utilization of zirconium oxide bushings in machinery of the future will bring necessary results; that a medical device made of such material is better than a steel device, and so on. The material is still to pass the tests, which will also take time. Dozens of ideas are brought to a designer, and authors of each of them assure that their solution is the very best. Then something falls out but something remains. Imagine yourself acting as a person who puts his(her) signature on the document regarding the item that will ultimately “fall out”. It is unlikely that somebody would take such responsibility upon him(her)self when applying an unfamiliar material, that is why new things are always approached with alert. However, the work is under way. No doubts that time will come and our material will capture its niche in many industries. 

Nanolevel and megaproblems

I cannot but mention: since recently, everybody has heatedly discussed graphene appearance, predicting bright future to it…

– So what? Have you seen graphene-based items in the stores? These are only words so far. Of course, graphene creation is boast of the world science but despite abundance of impressive publications I have great doubts that grahhene will soon become part of everyday life because formation of structures at the nanolevel causes a lot of engineering problems related to faultiness and stability of properties of obtainable material. I have the right to this viewpoint as a researcher and an engineer.

Do zirconium-oxide-based material creators expect to gain commercial profit from their development if the material successfully passes tests and is highly appreciated by manufactures in various industries? The development has certainly been patented, and you have already told me about brands…

– No, they have not estimated profit. Innovative activity and intellectual property protection in general cannot be performed between times – this is a very crucial and, in its own way, creative process, which comprises a system of corporate standards requiring professional approach. Everybody should mind his(her) own business. We began to design cutting tools because that application was obvious. More delicate and complicated tasks we are facing now are connected with friction and tear and wear (specifically, bushings of journal bearings for work under extreme service conditions, energy-saving roll bearings, etc.), possible changes in engineering approach to work with the material, as everything new has its own peculiarities. Of course, we protect the development, we have got patents. However, I have to admit that I have no experience in getting royalty, therefore it is difficult for me to discuss potential commercial benefit of patenting. The most important thing I need to do now is to conduct tests, to watch that these bushings enable to improve machinery technical characteristics, because as a person grieving for my country, I am interested in growth of domestic production quality and quantity.

Interviewed by Natalia Bykova, published by STRF.ru 

The use of external electric and magnetic fields as a control factor allows to manage the structure of the synthesised nanoparticles. The detailed research will be published in the May issue of the Russian Nanotechnologies. The study was conducted as part of the Federal Task Program “The Research and Development of the Priority Directions of the Russian Scientific and Technical Complex Development, 2007-2012.”

Multiple methods exist allowing to generate nanoparticles. Those methods all have an important flaw, however, as the synthesis often results in particles heterogeneous in structure and composition. At the same time, such science-intensive industries as electronics require more of completely identical and standard nanoparticles. Therefore, the researchers have to learn to effectively select the right nanoparticles out of the lump and invent new methods of synthesis allowing to increase the percentage of such particles.

Figure 1. Laser synthesis of carbon nanoparticles in a homogeneous electric field:
1 – laser beam direction; 2 – metal plates under continuous voltage; 3 – coordinate table with a sample

In order to ensure a high percentage of the required particles, the synthesis process must be controlled. Researchers at Vladimir State University and NT-MDT, CJSV, have discovered a way to control the structure of nanoparticles generated using the laser-induced target evaporation method. To do that, they put a pure graphite sample to be evaporated into continuous electric field and heterogeneous magnetic field.

In the former example (Figure 1) the synthesis was performed as follows: The laser resulted in the evaporation and ionisation of the graphite target atoms. Due to external electric field, the ionised atoms deviated from the main flow in the direction of a negatively charged plate.

After studying the layer precipitated on the plate using an electric microscope the researchers managed to confirm that carbon nanofibres were formed. It was possible to control the precipitation process by reducing the voltage on the plate. It resulted in changes in the structure of the precipitated particles: there formed nanoclusters with fractal structures that were characterised using fractal geometry methods.

Figure 2. carbon nanostructure laser synthesis in heterogeneous magnetic field:
1 – laser beam direction; 2 – cylinder magnets; 3 – cold substrate (glass);
4 – plate; 5 – graphite target

In the latter case, during the synthesis in a heterogeneous magnetic field (Figure 2), the same pure graphite sample is placed into the heterogeneous field in between the two magnets. In this case, the laser-evaporated atoms of the target were precipitated on the substrate situated above it. In order to create a gap for the distribution of plasma generated as a result of the laser beam action on the target, a ceramic ring plate was placed between the substrate and the target.

After studying the precipitated layer, is was proved that the process of nanostructured carbon generation was similar to dendrite growth. At the first stage, “germs” were formed on the substrate — small atom aggregates from which dendrite structures were branching out and growing like trees.

The researchers believe that by changing the magnetic field it is possible to change the precipitation mode which offers an opportunity to form the required “germs.” In turn, the “germ” structure determines further dendrite growth.

Analysis of the research results made it possible to conclude that an electric field provides the necessary focus of the spreading particles along its lines of force. Such orientation allows the formation of chemical bonds between the atoms, and directed nanofibres generation. Similar observations are true for the process of nanoparticle spreading in the magnetic field — however, dendrite structures are formed due to significant heterogeneity of the field.

The researchers believe that the methods of nanoparticle generation described above are rather promising. It is possible to manage the nanoparticle formation process by changing the level of electric or magnetic fields.

Source of information:

А. А. Antipov, S. М. Arakelyan, S. V. kutrovskaya, А. О. Kucherik, А. V. Osipov, V. G. Prokoshev, А. А. Shchekin: “The Laser Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibres and Nanoclusters.” The Russian Nanotechnologies, vol. 6, #5–6.

Azat Hadiev, published by STRF.ru

A number of titanium mechanical properties can be improved by the method developed by Russian researchers for nano-scale grains formation in pure titanium structure. The information on researching structure and properties of nano-scale titanium as well as implants based on it will be published in May issue of the “Russian Nanotechnologies” journal. The effort has been sponsored by the Federal Target Program “Research and academic stuff of innovative Russia for 2009–2013” and analytical departmental target program “Development of scientific potential in higher school” .

Titanium is one of the most promising materials for making surgical implants – prostheses implantable in the organism, which are used extensively in traumatology. This unique material possesses biocompatibility with organism’s tissues and even accretes with the bone. Although titanium is a sufficiently strong material, in some cases, scientists require higher strength properties. To increase strength, researchers often introduce admixtures, for example, aluminum and vanadium, into pure titanium. However, the indicated alloying elements have detrimental effect on the organism. Therefore, it is necessary to search for new methods to strengthen bio-inactive pure titanium from the point of view of better biological compatibility.

Formation of nano-scale grains via plastic deformation represents a trade-off alternative for pure titanium strengthening. Researchers at the Research-educational and innovative center “Nano-structural materials and nanotechnologies” and Belgorod State University in cooperation with researchers at the All-Russian Research and Planning Institute of Medical Instruments of Kazan carried out investigations of structure and mechanical properties of such nano-structured titanium.

To create nano-scale grains in titanium structure, the researchers applied an original plastic deformation method, which combines helical and lengthwise rolling. After metalforming by forming rolls was performed, titanium underwent annealing to release internal stress. As a result, grains of various sizes appeared in the structure, including those, which were less than 100 nm, the average dimension of formed grains making 290 nm.

Then specialists compared strength properties of processed unalloyed titanium and aluminum- and vanadium-alloyed titanium. Conducted mechanical tests indicated almost twofold increase in titanium strength as compared to its initial state. Moreover, the obtained values approximated to alloyed titanium strength values.

Finished goods tests, namely tests of titanic screws for traumatology are of interest from practical application point of view. Besides high strength properties, the screws should possess significant torsion plastic deformation. If the screw material is not sufficiently plastic, than screw destruction is possible upon structure assembly under real medical prosthetics operation conditions. As a result, the surgeon will have to drill the remainder (worm gear portion) of the screw out of the bone and to change configuration of installable construction. This procedure leads not only to unplanned increase of operation duration but also to increased risk of incorrect implant functioning. Titanium screw testing has proved that nano-structured titanium possesses extremely high plasticity, maximum twist angle of the sample up to its damage makes 410 degrees. The above result is approximately 60% higher than plasticity value of alloyed titanium.

Titanium strengthening due to nano-scale grain formation in pure titanium is equivalent to strengthening due to alloying elements in terms of mechanical properties values. In the researchers’ opinion, such strengthening method is an adequate substitute for metal alloying.

Source of information:

M.B. Ivanov, Yu. R. Kolobov, E.V. Golosov, I.N. Kuzmenko, V.P. Veinov, D.A. Nechaenko, E.S. Kungurtsev “Mechanical properties of batch-production nano-structural titanium”. Russian Nanotechnologies, Vol. 6, # 5–6.

Mikhail Petrov published by STRF.ru

Supercondutors show zero electrical resistance at low temperatures. The flow of electrons creating the electric current moves there without colliding with the atoms of the crystal lattice of the conducting material; that means that there is no heat loss. Today, superconductors are used to create high-power magnets for expensive scientific equipment and highly accurate medical diagnostic devices.

A material manifests its superconducting properties at certain levels of the external field intensity, temperature or current power. Researchers at the Institute for Physics of Metals, Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences; and the Research Institute for Inorganic Materials, have studied the dependence of the level of the critical current on the method of material production.

Irina Deryagina and her colleagues were generating superconducting tin niobate (Nb3Sn) fibers using the bronze technology where niobium fibres are enclosed into a bronze matrix with an elevated tin level. Heating makes the tin atoms react with the fibres forming nanocrystal grains of superconducting Nb3Sn. Provided the right conditions (the temperature and heating time, and tin concentration), the transverse sections of the fibres have practically no niobium atoms that have not reacted after annealing. Small amounts of titanium are often added during the fibre production process which facilitates the correct positioning of the niobium and tin atoms to create superconducting grains of small fixed sizes (about 60–80 nanometer).

Titanium can be added in the bronze matrix or it can be implemented in the niobium fibres structure before annealing. The researchers compared the physical properties of the superconducting materials produced using two different methods and discovered that the level of critical current density causing superconductivity to disappear differs significantly as well. If titanium is added to the bronze matrix the critical current density for the resultant conductor is 980 А/mm2. When titanium atoms are added to niobium fibres, the level reduces to 780 А/mm2. The research supported by the Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences was published in the Siberian Federal University Journal.

The physicists studied the microphotographs of the resultant structures. Without titanium alloying, pure niobium areas are preserved in the material, that did not react with the tin and showed lower current conducting ability. The Nb3Sn grains in such samples are heterogeneous in size which has a negative effect on the superconductor. Titanium facilitates the formation of homogeneous Nb3Sn grains with the use of any chosen method of alloying; but if they are put in the matrix together with tin and not in the niobium fibres, however, the positive effect is more pronounced.

The researchers note that even the best samples generated in the course of the experiments contain areas of pure niobium that has not reacted with tin. It means that the achieved levels of critical current are below the maximum and there is room for improvement. “The results of the work show us the direction for improving the technology to create multi-fibre conductors,” say the researchers.

Source of information:

L. Deryagina, Е. N. Popova, Е. G. Zakharevskaya, Е. P. Romanov, А. Е. Vorobyeva, Е. А. Dergunova, С. M. Malaev. “The Effect of the Alloying Method and the Composite Geometry on the Structure of Nb3Sn Nanocrystal Layers in Nb/Cu-Sn Superconducting Composites.” The Siberian Federal University Journal. Series: Mathematics and Physics. 2011, vol. 4, #2.

Mikhail Petrov published by STRF.ru

Recently, word has been appearing in scientific literature suggesting that collaurin can activate the immune system response to foreign antigens. Researchers at the Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Plants and Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, and the State Scientific Institution of Saratov Research Veterinary Station of Russian Agriculture Academy; have proved that gold nanoparticles increase the immune response of the body given the vaccination of the animals with the transmissible pig gastroenteritis (TPG) virus.

Transmissible pig gastroenteritis is a highly contagious and a very dangerous disease. It most commonly affects piglets in the first weeks of their lives, and in complicated cases can cause the mortality rate of 100 per cent. The piglets can be protected only with maternal antigens that they receive through colostrum and milk. Various vaccines for this disease exist, that are prepared using live or attenuated virus but these are not efficient enough which makes the increase of the immune response to TPG an urgent task.

Collaurin is non-toxic. It has already been proven as a carrier for medicines, genetic material and antigens; it is used for cancer and arthritis therapy.

The researchers prepared the TPG conjugate containing collaurin nanoparticles (with the average particle size being 15 nanometer). Gold interacts with viral proteins forming a sustainable complex. One group of experimental animals was immunised using the resulting conjugate while the other group received a virus without collaurin.

It was discovered that the TPG conjugated with gold nanoparticles was more effective in stimulating the work of the immune system as compared to a common virus. Moreover, the complex affects various sections of the immune system including both phagocyte cells and antibody production.

These are preliminary results but the researchers believe it possible that they can serve as a basis to create antiviral vaccines using cold nanoparticles.

Source of information:

S. А. Staroverov, I. V. Vidyasheva, К. P. Gabalov, О. А. Vasilenko, V. N. Laskavy, L. А. Dykman: “Studying Immunostimulating Action of Gold Nanoparticles Conjugated with the Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus.” The Bulletin Of Experimental Biology And Medicine, 2011, #4.

Natalia Reznik published by STRF.ru

For many experiments, it is important to know the exact wavelength of the source of light. Unfortunately, wavelengths of lasers or light-emitting diodes are subject to change depending on the environment factors such as ambient temperature. Those changes that can be as significant as a fraction of a nanometer are important for exploring the structural positions of ions in metals. Today, equipment is calibrated using emission spectrum analysis (spectrophotometric method) but this is a difficult process, however, requiring long-term stable temperature of the light source.

Scientists at the Institute of Semiconductor Physics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences have suggested a principally new and simpler method of measuring emission wavelength which allows to detect changes of up to 10⁻³ nanometer.

The article was published in the Nauchnoye Priborostroyeniye magazine (the Scientific Instrument Engineering).

Ellipsometer is an optical device commonly used to identify the properties of a substance. During a regular procedure, polarised light with a known wavelength is emitted through the sample in order to determine its properties based on the nature of the phase shift. The Novosibirsk-based researchers suggested using the ellipsometer to address an opposite task: to let a ray of light through a substance with known properties in order to calculate the light wavelength using the phase shift.

Preliminary calibration of the device allows to determine the phase shift for any light wavelength. When the measurements are done, the researchers can calculate the light source wavelength knowing the phase shift. In the course of the experiment, the emission of one and the same laser was studied at 22 C° and 32 C°. It was discovered that in the former example it generates light with the wavelength of 660.0 nanometer, and in the latter case the wavelength is 660.6 nanometer. Such minute change can insignificantly distort the results of some physical experiments. The researchers believe that the method will meet a high demand as convenient and miniature ellipsometer already exist.

Further information: D. V. Marin, V. N. Fedorinin, Tokhir Khasanov, “Measuring the Wavelength of Light Sources Using Ellipsometer Method.” the Scientific Instrument Engineering, vol. 21, March 2011.

Dmitrij Tsendin published by STRF.ru

As of today, graphene, the thinnest one-atom-thick layer of carbon, is one of the most amazing materials. Measurements made in 2008 by researchers at Columbia University, proved that graphene was also the strongest and most elastic material among all known ones. However, the obtained data related to “ideal” graphene, which contains very few admixtures, its crystal structure being homogeneous. Apparently, defects in its structure should affect elastic properties and electronic features of the material.

Indeed, defects in structure have great impact on strength and electric properties of graphene. Researchers can learn to control the movement of these defects and, using them, “to sew together” carbon nanotubes or fullerenes. Such nanotubes or fullerenes connected to each other may be formed only owing to availability of defects, which possess sufficient mobility. Therefore, search for opportunities to connect such elements is the primary task in carbon electronics. For example, transistors running on nanotubes have already been created.

New research relating to controlled motion of graphene structure defects were published in the latest issue of “Experimental and Theoretical Physics Journal”.

Researchers at the L.V. Kirensky Institute of Physics and Siberian Federal University carried out theoretical study of graphene structural defects influence on its elastic properties. The specialists considered vacancy as a defect. The word “vacancy” implies in this case disturbance of atomic arrangement periodicity in graphene structure. “Ideal” graphene is a highly-ordered structure, where each atom is “in its place”. If an atom is absent from the place assigned to it in the structure, then a defect is formed – a vacancy, a peculiar “blank space” in graphene crystal lattice.

To study elastic properties, the researchers determined the Young modulus. This coefficient characterizes the material’s ability to resist compression or extension: the higher Young modulus is, the stronger the material is. For reference: the Young modulus of aluminum is about 70 hPa, that of steel is  210 hPa, and that of “ideal” graphene is about 1,000 hPa! As a result of studies, the researchers came to the conclusion that the more defects in graphene structure are, the lower the Young modulus is. This dependence was expressed in strict inverse proportionality.

Besides this parameter, the researchers also assessed traverse speed of vacancies in graphene subject to direction the deformation is applied at. Obtained knowledge is extremely necessary to enable ordered motion of defects in graphene. It has turned out that traverse speed of vacancies changed significantly (both upward and downward) depending on whether the sample was compressed or extended.

Source of information:

A.S. Fedorov, D.A. Fedorov, Z.I. Popov, Yu.E. Ananieva, N.S. Eliseyeva, A.A. Kuzubov “Mobility of vacancies under deformation and their influence on elastic properties of graphene”. Experimental and Theoretical Physics Journal (Zhurnal Eksperimentalnoi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki), 2011, Vol. 139, issue 5.

Azat Hadiev, published by STRF.ru

Enormous free surface area, unique magnetic and optical properties of nanoparticles provide great opportunities for their application. One of the easiest and most efficient methods for getting nanoparticles is mechanical milling of larger-particle powders. Solving specific process tasks often requires nanoparticles of fixed composition and dimensions, but the existing models of obtaining them are rather experimental data integration and can hardly help in selecting powder processing conditions for new tasks.

The Ekaterinburg researchers at the Institute of Chemistry of Solids, Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, have for the first time suggested a model that is capable to reliably forecast dimensions of obtained nanoparticles. Numerical experiment outcomes coincided with experimental data on getting tungsten carbide (WC). The researchers have managed to find out that particles dimensions decrease as milling time grows and, on the contrary, increase if original particle size and shot mass grow up. The findings of research carried out by Ural and Siberian Branches of the Russian Academy of Sciences with support by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research were published at “Journal of Applied Physics”.

Mechanical milling of powders takes place in a planetary-type mill, filled by rotating spheres. Spheres motion analysis earlier performed by the researchers proved direct relation between consumed energy and time of milling under fixed rotation velocity of the mill. Energy is consumed for bond opening and significant increase of particles free surface.

The formula deduced by Alexander Gusev and Alexy Kurlov describes dimensions of obtained particles as the milling time, shot mass and original particle dimensions function. Shear and compression moduli, crystal framework parameters and some others are used as physical characteristics of the substance. According to the formula, increasing the shot mass, original particle dimensions or decreasing milling time results in expansion of obtained particles.

The data of experiment on coarse-grained tungsten carbide (10 mcm)  powder milling up to nanoscale particles (10 nm) coincided well with the deduced formula dependence. For this reason, the suggested model, as the researchers point out, “will enable to pass from empirical fit of milling conditions towards theoretical assessment of milling parameters based on physical characteristics of original substance.”

Source of information:

A.S. Kurlov, A.I. Gusev “Powder milling model”. Journal of Applied Physics (Zhurnal Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki), 2011, Vol. 81, issue 7.

Mikhail Petrov, published by STRF.ru

Tomsk State University is a research-type university and a leading innovation center for science and education, which meets contemporary labor market requirements and is integrated into high-tech sectors of economy and service industry.

Departments, research institutes, research educational centers at Tomsk State University jointly with a number of institutes of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences are making intense efforts to develop nanotechnologies, this implementing together with partners research and educational projects and programs with utilization of contemporary scientific and manufacturing equipment of the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage (TRCCU).

The Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage was founded in 2006 by the consortium of Tomsk State University and the Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science of the Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (ISPMS SB RAS) for the purpose of expanding joint activity areas, implementing large-scale pilot projects, process plans and innovation projects, which require integration of scientific and technical potential and, primarily, instrument stock of science intensive equipment. At present, the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage combines 11 core Centers for Collective Usage and the “Biotest-Nano” center of Tomsk State University, Centers for Collective Usage “Nanotech” and accredited testing laboratory “Metall-test” of the ISPMS SB RAS. The Center is intended not only for research work and educational process but also for rendering services to third party organizations, among other things, for testing various production, including nanoscale industry output. To this end, the Center possesses respective metering techniques, metrologically certified equipment, the operation of which is ensured by highly skilled operator specialists. Metrological provision of activities carried out at the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage is executed by the Department of Standardization, Metrology and Quality Control of R&D jointly with the Department of Activity Coordination for the Center for Collective Usage at scientific management of Tomsk State University, which report to pro-rector; vice-chancellor проректору по научной работе of Tomsk State University.

The Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage is the test center of Industry department of the Center for metrological provision and conformance evaluation of nanotechnologies and nanoscale industry output for the “Functional nanoscale materials and high-clean substances” area. The Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage was accredited as a test center for engineering competence in the system of accreditation of testing laboratories in compliance with the State Standard R ISO/MEK 17025-2006 (Certificate ROSS RU.0001.22NN07), in the system of accreditation of analytical laboratories (Certificate ROSS RU.0001.517686), as well as in the System of Voluntary Certification for Nanoindustry Output “Nanocertifica” of State Corporation “Rosnanotech” (Certificate ROSS.RU.V503.04NZh00.70.04.0026). The Center takes part in interlaboratory comparing product tests, including nanoindustry output tests, on a regular basis.

The main functions of the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage in metrology and standardization areas are as follows

• Promotion of development and implementation of contemporary metering techniques and instrments;
• Assistance in development of standard specimen of substances/materials composition and properties (for assigned measuring areas);
• Assistance in development of and metrological certification и метрологической аттестации методик выполнения испытаний.

Applying contemporary equipment, the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage is implementing a number of large-scale projects:

TECHNOLOGIES FOR OBTAINING CATALYSTS FOR GLYOXAL PRODUCTION VIA VAPOR-PHASE OXIDATION OF ETHYLENE GLYCOL

The Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage takes an active part in projects executed by Tomsk State University to develop catalysts for the most important industrial processes of deep oil refining and gas processing. Technology for obtaining glyoxal synthesis catalysts [1] is one of successful developments.

Due to high activity and unique properties, glyoxal has widespread application in manufacturing of brisant substances and propellants, drugs (imidazole, tinidazole, metronidazole, quinoxaline, piridazone, etc.), disinfectants and pesticides, solutions for soil fixing, hydrolic fracture, well repair, preparations for gas cleaning from sulfur-containing compounds, polymers, low-toxic carbamide resins, glues, films, rubber fillers, additives to plastics, resins, basis of multiple vanish compositions, structural concrete, solutions for high-quality leather tanning, moisture-resistant glues and plasters, electronic boards, etc. Partners to the project are “Industrial Company Novokhim” LLC, “Glyoxal-T” LLC. The developed catalyst exceeds all foreign analogues in activity and service life, its action is based on functioning of finely dispersed particles of silver and copper applied upon the oxide matrix. Thermal stability is the catalyst’s important peculiarity: it can be applied at temperatures up to 700^оС without catalyst ageing.

Figure 1. Catalyst of ethylene glycol vapor-phase oxidation

Using this catalyst enabled to launch the first Russian glyoxal production in Tomsk, its production capacity making 1,000 tons per year. Besides research study and catalyst tests carried out within the framework of the project, the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage developed and metrologically certified “Method for glyoxal mass fraction measuring in aqueous solution of glyoxal via the gas chromatography method” (STO TGU 060 – 2009, # 168 dated 16.04.2009, Certificate of Attestation MVI # 224.09.11.038/2009 dated 28.04.2009) and the standard specimen of composition “Glyoxal, 40-% solution”.

Pilot trials of catalysts for synthesis of valuable chemical semi-products: glyoxalic acid and pyruvaldehyde (Fig. 1) are currently accomplished on the equipment of the Center for Collective Usage.

TECHNOLOGY FOR OBTAINING SUBMICROCRYSTALLINE AND NANOSTRUCTURES IN LARGE-DIMENSION CAST BILLET OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TITANIUM ALLOYS VIA SEVERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION METHODS

Severe plastic deformation technology [2] includes multiple uniaxial pressing within the selected temperature conditions and changing the axis of strain, and subsequent rolling. The technology allows to get a titanium bar VT1-0 in nanostructured or submicrocrystalline conditions while preserving sufficient plasticity with mechanical properties comparable to properties of medical-purpose titanium alloys (VT, VT16). In contrast to titanium alloys, the VT1-0 bar does not contain alloying elements (aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum), which are harmful to a living organism. This determines its advantages as a material for medical-purpose items. Research and development work in the scope of the project resulted in creation of titanium dental implants. Implant development was carried out purposefully, upon the initiative by Professor V.K. Polenichkin, head of subdepartment of maxillofacial surgery and general dentistry at the State Educational Institution for Continuing Vocational Education at Novokuznetsk State Medical Refresher Institute (GOU DPO NGIUV) of the Federal Agency for Healthcare and Social Development (Roszdrav) (Novokuznetsk).

Figure 2. A set of dental intraosteal threaded implants made of nanostructured/ultrafine-grained titanium, as well as instruments and accessories

The outcome of the above research was development of a set of dental implants made of titanium and instruments and accessories (TU 942422.001-10), required for surgical and orthopaedic procedures. The implant construction ensures sparing traumatizing of the patient’s jaw (bone tissue self-threading takes place while implantation operation is performed), initial stability in the course of introduction into bone tissue of the jaw, bone tissue tight contact with the implant surface, capillary blood filling of the structure elements, which enables to reduce the period for osteointegration and patient’s rehabilitation. Clinical trials have proved that the designed implants meet qualifying standards, possess good operational and functional properties, are recommended for dental practice in the Russian Federation and for registration in the Federal Supervisory Agency for Health Care and Social Development (Fig. 2). After the dental implant set registration at the Federal Supervisory Agency for Health Care and Social Development takes place, it is planned to organize implant production in Tomsk and to arrange refresher courses for dentists in Novokuznetsk under the auspices of the State Medical Refresher Institute.

The developed technology for getting volumetric nanostructured billets in the form of bars and plates with a high level of mechanical and physical and operational characteristics  can also be applied as a material for producing structure components for contemporary equipment (for example, waveguides for magnetostrictive ultrasonic transducers) and is efficient for solving applied problems of mechanical engineering and aerospace industry. Further development of this direction is also promising for medical-purpose items (including manufacturing of prosthetic cardiac valve components).

TECHNOLOGY FOR MAKING LAMINATED AND GRADIENT THERMALLY STABLE COATINGS VIA MAGNETRON-ION SYNTHESIS  METHODS WITHIN A SINGLE PROCESS CYCLE

Works in the area of material science is performed on equipment of the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage. Magnetron reactive sputtering of metals and high energy ion beam bombardment enable to synthesize coatings with depth-changing structural phase and chemical compositions, the so called gradient coatings [3]. The bottom layer of such coatings should ensure good conjugation with the substrate and high bearing capacity, the upper one – required functional characteristics of coatings (hardness, wear resistance, heat-resistance, etc.), the middle layer – should serve as a transitional binding agent and possess high relaxation ability and sufficient strength and viscosity.

Figure 3. Plasma magnetron-arc complex «SPRUT (Octopus)»

Solving the problem required investigation of structural-phase states, determination of components’ concentration profiles and their distribution along the thickness of nano-composite coating, as well as their influence on tribotechnical and mechanical properties of coatings. On the other hand, nanocrystalline state of coatings is nonequilibrium, which may lead to changing properties as a result of elastic relaxation, grain growth, phase transformations. A unique complex “SPRUT” was designed to apply gradient nano-structural coatings, and integrated study of coatings were carried out on the Center equipment while fine-tuning operating conditions (Fig. 3).

In the framework of work implementation, experimental models were obtained and laboratory wear resistance tests were executed for carbide inserts of drills made of fast-cutting steel and straight turning tools with hard-alloy plates with applied laminated coatings. The operational life after applying these coatings increased by 3–5 times for carbide blades, by 3.5 times for various types of drills, by 2 times for straight-turning tools, i.e., the designed laminated coatings should be efficient as protective coatings for instrument purposes. Experimental models were also made for frames and noses with laminated nanocomposite coatings applied upon their working surfaces for work of combined valves of compressors for high-pressure polyethylene production. The performed operational tests have proved that operational life of the equipment using processed components increases by more than 2 times.

The following large-scale projects are also implemented with the help of equipment of the Center for Collective Usage:

• Establishment of diversified production of porous nanostructural nonmetallic inorganic coatings (the project is implemented jointly with the State Corporation “Rosnanotech” and Close Joint-Stock Company “EleCi”, Close Joint-Stock Company “MANEL” was founded) [4];
• Development of original technologies for semiconductor materials and nanoscale structures with pre-assigned functional properties and establishment, industrial engineering and market launch of quantum-sensitive sensors, converters, components, devices and systems versatile functional nanoscale electronics (the project is implemented with participation of a number of industrial enterprises, including Open Joint-Stock Company “Research Institute of Semiconductor Devices”);
• Development and implementation of series production of inorganic and organic nanoscale- and submicronic powders and materials based on them via pneumocirculating methods using self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (the project is implemented jointly with Limited Liability Company “Scientific Production Association “MIPOR”) [5];
• Development of methodology for studying nanoscale materials biosafety.

Educational activity at the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage is arranged with utilization of contemporary research complexes (analytical and manufacturing equipment), which meet the world standards in technical and operational characteristics of instrumentation pool, and make part of integral multilevel educational system for a new generation staff training and retraining for nanoscale industry [6].

The Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage has  the following directions in its educational activities:

• Training of the highest-quality personnel and implementation of individual educational paths for undergraduates with utilization of the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage equipment;
• Organization of in-depth training, refresher training courses and programs in the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage for research engineers, postgraduate students, doctoral candidates of institutes of higher education and research institutions, as well as for employees of other organizations and representatives of foreign research and educational institutions. 9 refresher course programs are implemented at the Center for Collective Usage, government-standard certificates being handed according to their results.

Upon the order of the State Corporation “Rosnanotech”, the job retraining program entitled “Methods and technologies for forming interphase boundaries and nanostructural nonmetallic polyfunctional coatings” (520 hours) was developed and implemented using the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage equipment. The program was executed in the framework of the project “Development and approbation of the program for advanced job retraining and learning complex, dedicated to investment projects of the State Corporation “Rosnanotech” in the field of diversified production of porous nanostructural nonmetallic inorganic coatings”.

Based on the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage, the annual Workshop school “Research and metrology of nanoscale materials” takes place for a chain of centers for collective usage of scientific equipment.

The first Workshop school was organized in November 2008 in the framework of the Federal Special-Purpose Program “Researches and developments on priority lines of development of scientific and technological complex in Russia for 2007–2012” and the Federal Special-Purpose Program “Evolution of nanoscale industry infrastructure in the Russian Federation for 2008–2010”. The second Workshop school took place within October 12–16, 2009 within the scope of the II International Conference with elements of scientific school for the youth “Physics and Chemistry of Nanoscale materials” with support of the Federal Special-Purpose Program “Scientific and Educational Research Personnel of Innovative Russia” and the Federal Special-Purpose Program “Evolution of nanoscale industry infrastructure in the Russian Federation for 2008–2010”. At these Workshop schools, participants listened to the lectures by specialists of leading companies-manufactures of scientific equipment, visited masterclasses and hands-on training using the equipment pool of the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage.

In 2010, the school acquired a more applied nature, the metrological component of the event was reinforced. The third Workshop school took place in November 2010 in the framework of the All-Russian conference “Interaction of higher education institutions and research institutes with enterprises in the scope of development and implementation of programs for enterprise innovative development. Scientific and metrological support of integrated projects for establishment of high-technology manufacturing” (November 8–13, 2010). The event invited for participation representatives of divisions of the Center for metrological provision of nanoscale technologies and nanoscale industry products of the Russian Federation (Center for International Education), operator-specialists of centers for collective usage at high education institutions and academic institutions, as well as representatives of enterprises and higher education institutions that implement integrated projects to establish high-technology manufacturing, – winners at the contest under the RF Government Decree # 218 dated April 9, 2010. The III Workshop school traditionally contained refresher courses with utilization of contemporary analytical equipment of the Center for Collective Usage.

The event became the information realm for exchanging opinions and discussions between heads of the Center for International Education departments and representatives of businesses in real sector of economy on issues of the RF industries need in development of new standard specimen products and material parameters measuring techniques. The event also identifies necessity for drawing new regulatory and procedural documents that regulate industry activity, and for updating the existing documents. Participation of representatives of metrological departments and centers for collective usage founded under the auspices of RF institutes of academic sciences and higher education institutions, enabled to establish scientific and technical relations for efficient utilization of unique measuring and test equipment, potential of highly qualified scientific brainpower of the Center for Collective Usage, as well as for refresher courses for the Center for Collective Usage specialists in the area of measurement assurance.

Nowadays, the Tomsk Regional Center for Collective Usage is an inalienable part of the infrastructure for education for science, higher school, real sector of economy, for advancing scientific developments and basic research for nanoscale industry, metrological provision of new technologies.

REFERENCES:

1. Vodiankina O.V., Kourina L.N., Petrov L.A., Knyazev A.S.. Glyoxal// M.: Academia. 2007. P. 248.
2. Shakreyev Yu.P., Polenichkin V.K., Beliavskaya O.A. Prospects of of ultra-fine-grained titanium utilization in dental implantology. // Materials of the international theoretical and practical conference «Transplantology State And Prospects». October 8–10, 2008. Minsk: Belorusskaya Nauka. 2008. P. 116–118.
3. Lotkov A.I., Psakhie S.G., Knyazeva A.G., Koval N.N., Korotaev A.D. et al. Nanoengineering of Surface. Formation of nonequilibrium states in surface layers of materials via electron-ion-plasmous methods/ RAS. Siberian Branch. Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science. Novosibirsk: Publishers of Siberian Branch of RAS. 2008. P. 276.
4. Mamaev A.I., Mameva V.A., Borikov V.N., Dorofeeva T.I. Formation of nanostructural nonmetallic inorganic coatings via high-energy streams localization at interphase boundary: Study Guide. Tomsk: Tomsk University Publishers. 2010. P. 360.
5. Biriukova Yu.A., Buznik V.M., Dunaevsky G.E., Ivnin I.V., Ischenko A.N., Lerner M.I., Lymar A.M., Ob’edkov A.Yu., Psakhie S.G., Tsvetnikov A.K. Superdispersed and nano-dimensional powders // Tomsk. NTL Publishers. 2009. P. 192.
6. Babkina O.V., Dunaevsky G.E. The role of Centers for Collective Usage in educating of academic and teaching staff. Digest of theoretical and practical conference «Centers for Collective Usage of scientific equipment in the contemporary R&D sector» edited by Kachak V.V. // Ministry of Education and Science. M. 2010. P. 55–57.

Authirs: O.V. Babkina, G.E. Dunaevsky, I.V. Ivonin (Tomsk State University,  #36, Lenin Av., Tomsk, 634050)

P.P. Kaminsky (Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, #2/4, Akademichesky Av., Tomsk, 634055,  E-mail: ckp@mail.tsu.ru)

"Rossiiskie Nanothecnologii" Journal # 1-2 2011.

The first Russian research centre was established based on the “Kurchatov Institute” National Research Centre. It also includes the B. P. Konstantinov Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences (Gatchina); the Institute for High Energy Physics (Protvono); and the Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics (Moscow). Today, this structure embraces about 10.000 people. Mikhail Kovalchuk, director of the newly-established entity, spoke on the opportunities open for the research centre.

Mikhail Kovalchuk: “The impact factor cannot be perceived as an absolute indicator. For example, CERN employs 1.000 people while their work results in one article. Does it really mean that they don’t work hard enough and waste the money spent on them?”

The development program for the Research Centre (RC) spanning three years sets priorities for each institute which is a world-renowned brand, emphasises Kovalchuk. The Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute will be the head organisation for the development of neutron research; the Institute for High Energy Physics will serve as a centre for proton research; and the Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics is in charge for research concerning heavy ions and nuclear medicine. The Kurchatov Institute deals with the field of thermonuclear physics and supports research for nuclear power engineering. It also operates in the principally new area of convergent sciences (for additional information, see the article “The Science Matrix with Mikhail Kovalchuk”).

“Any kind of development always means consolidation, integration of potentials. That is the purpose of the Research Centre, — says Mikhail Kovalchuk. — On the one hand, we will be able to employ the complete innovation chain based on this centre, from idea to product implementation; and on the other hand, this means the creation of some pool for mega-science development — that is, for research using large unique equipment. And the fact of utmost importance is that we are going not only to use that equipment but also to built new equipment as well.”

RUSSIAN NATURE CITATION INDEX

Why was the research centre based on the Kurchatov Institute? The fact was criticised repeatedly. For example, the final statement published after the June conference for Russian scientists working abroad said that the Kurchatov Institute had been entertaining special capabilities and funds while the number of scientific publications by its employees had seen no increase.

“These talks are absolutely groundless provided they are taken them seriously and not speculatively, — said Mikhail Kovalchuk. – In the times of the Soviet Union, there existed a huge nuclear and physics potential, the institutes belonged to various jurisdictions but it really did not matter within the Soviet administrative system as they had the great and powerful Ministry of Medium Machine Building that used to fund and coordinate the work of all institutes. After the Soviet Union collapsed, the Ministry disappeared, and the Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation became a commercial company, the coordinating role of the state and the scientific community ceased to exist and each institute turned into a shop earning money any way it could. Therefore, the government made the only natural and logically understandable step to strengthen its potential.”

The impact factor cannot be perceived as an absolute indicator, says Kovalchuk. For example, CERN employs 1.000 people while their work results in one article. Does it really mean that they don’t work hard enough and waste the money spent on them? As for the Kurchatov Institute and the citation index of its employees, the real problem is that the institute is perceived under three distinct names. If all of the publications under those names could be counted together it would result in one of the highest citation ratings in the country, clarifies Kovalchuk.

“Science is a ephemeral subject which is hard to evaluate. This is why the indexes were created that present enormous amounts of money and national interests,” says Kovalchuk

“Publishing an article in a prestigious journal is a special task. We need to not only penetrate our way into international magazines and ratings but also create our own indexing system and Russian Nature and to promote it to the level where it could have a similar impact factor.”

ON NEW RESEARCH EQUIPMENT

The head of the Kurchatov Institute told us about new equipment that is to be built and deployed at the research centre. That includes, in particular, MARS, a fourth-generation source of synchrotron emission. It will be more powerful than the European ESRF — one of the three most powerful plants in the world — but less high-power as compared to the X-Ray Free Electron Laser that is planned to be created by 2014.

“We need to skip a generation, — says Kovalchuk. — The Kurchatov Institute already possesses a unique synchrotron emission source. However, Russia somewhat lags behind European countries concerning the development of new types of such devices. The new emission source will provide a ‘more quality beam’ the properties of which will be close to those of laser beam.”

Mikhail Kovalchuk also said that the launch the PIK neutron reactor is planned at the Nuclear Physics Institute in the first half of 2011; the reactor construction was started back in the 1970s.

Several years ago, a decision was made to proceed with the construction work; it was planned to provide hundreds of millions of dollars to fund the project. The launch was intended for the spring 2010 but was delayed due to financial issues.

“Currently, the situation is normal and we do not face financial problems. It is necessary to note that this is a highly radiation-dangerous object so it will have to be tested and an authorisation of the Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Supervision must be granted,” added Kovalchuk.

The PIK high flux beam reactor will serve as a unique source of super-intensive neutrons. It will be able to provide a neutrons flow of 1015 neutron per second per square centimetre, and the density of the flow in the so-called central channel is going to be 5х1015. Similar flow density is provided only by three reactors worldwide, two in the US and one in Europe (L'Institut Laue-Langevin, France).

The plant is supposed to serve as an X-ray machine of a kind. A neutron beam will “examine” samples of various materials but unlike X-rays it will penetrate much deeper and ensure much higher detailed resolution. In addition, a neutron beam is capable to “see” the substances transparent for X-rays such as hydrogen which will allow to study biological molecules and polymers.

SCIENTISTS LINING UP TO WORK AT THE INSTITUTE

Mikhail Kovalchuk noted that ambitious plans are impossible to carry out with equipment only. That required people. According to the head of the institute, this country still has the potential acquired during previous years. Moreover, some scientists working at foreign research centres still represent Russia there.

“As for the question of brain drain, we should leave cliches behind. Currently, we have a dynamic balance in place, with some people going and some coming. More than two dozens of scientists have already returned to the Institute,” believes Kovalchuk.

“And they did this on their own accord without any invitation to come back. These people are useful as they worked with the most modern equipment that we did not have at the time; now that we do have it we do not need to spend time and money on training professionals.”

Young scientists are undoubtedly the main target of the Institute, says Kovalchuk. The institute has recently managed to rebuild a special system of departments in various universities. Total of 24 departments were established at the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, the National Research Nuclear University, the Bauman Moscow State Technical University, the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, and others. For example, the first in the world department of Convergent Sciences was established at the Physics department of Moscow State University, with 42 students currently studying there. The important fact is that they both study and work on the premises of the Kurchatov Institute at the Centre for Nano-, Bio-, Information and Cognitive Technologies.

Accommodation presents another issue. “This problem does not have a simple solution, — confessed the Institute director. — We did build a guest house for people to live and work in. We gradually completed the renovation of our hotel and we are now able to invite guests virtually free of charge. Further issue of accommodation construction must be addressed strategically on government level. Local and federal authorities should be in constant contact with each other to propel the development.”

ON THE MILITARY INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX REVIVAL AND SKOLKOVO

Russian scientists actively participate in large international projects such as CERN, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), European Free-Electron Laser, XFEL and FAIR accelerator based in Darmstadt. The question arises concerning the distribution of the intellectual property rights to the research results.

“The issue has many nuances and therefore is subject to detailed discussions on multiple levels, — reports Kovalchuk. — Usually, several options are present: the rights are divided according to the contributions of the parties involved, or a party can chose its piece in advance.”

Mikhail Kovalchuk also expressed his opinion on developments intended for the defense industry. Truly breakthrough results are impossible without such research as those developments are the only ones to garner sufficient funding and competition levels, believes Kovalchuk. According to him, the end of global confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States, and the end of the Cold War brought an end to dramatic development of new technologies, and no breakthrough advances were presented since then. “The competition disappeared and now development is linear,” — says Kovalchuk.

He believes that the development of civil technologies does not provide a significant incentive to create something new whereas the very existence of the state depends on developments in the defense area. “The revival of the military industrial complex provides an important stimulus for science,” — noted Kovalchuk.

An apparent advantage of Skolkovo is that the emergence of the project itself disturbed the balance in the scientific landscape. Scientific environment should change instead of motionless existence, says Kovalchuk. He believes that notwithstanding the fact that the place currently has nothing there, a set of laws exists allowing to establish a company on special terms.

NON-CORE SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY

It is an established fact that science must be “run” by a person actually participating in scientific activity. But the opinion of Mikhail Kovalchuk on leading research institutes Is that at the same time, this person should also have managers. He believes that functions are necessary to be divided.

“A scientist should not be engaged in non-core activities. We need a powerful personnel infrastructure that would spare scientists from addressing the problems of cleaning and sweeping. The Crystallography Institute that I have been leading for 15 years does not let its spaces for lease but is does have marble stairways and new equipment. We have scientific management and executive management. Each area has its own duties.”

By Marina Muravyeva for STRF.ru and nanorf.ru

Imagine a small notebook about ten pages thick. Each page is filled with some symbols. Is it possible to read the text in each page without actually opening the notebook? Yes, it is, says Eduard Rau, leading scientific associate at the joint Microscopy and Electronic Microtomography laboratory of the Physics Department, Moscow State University. Professor Rau led the development of an original method of noncontact nondestructive sample test. But in this case, however, the researchers do not deal with notebooks (used as an example for students for visualisation purposes) but with microelectronic devices and appliances.

STRF.ru reference:
Eduard I. Rau, head of the joint Microscopy and Electronic Microtomography laboratory, established at the Institute of Microelectronics Technology and High Purity Materials, Russian Academy of Sciences; and the Physics Department, Physical Electronics faculty, Moscow State University; Professor, Doctor of Physics and Mathematics.

The laboratory performs electron probe analysis of microelectronic products, materials and devices. In recent years, there has been an active shift from microelectronics to nanoelectronics, and therefore research is also targeted at the nano-field. Control and diagnostics of microchips are getting dramatically more complicated due to constant decreases in the size of their components. At some point, that was measured in microns, then in submicrons, and now tens of nanometers are involved. That is a thousand times smaller than the diameter of a human hair (50 micron). For example, the size of the crystal in large chips installed in computer processors is several millimetres, with possible billions of elements featured in one chip all within very slim spaces.

Eduard Rau led the development of an original method of noncontact
nondestructive sample test

Microchips are increasingly made multi-layered with a sandwich-like structure. If some of the layers faces a failure it is extremely difficult to identify the specific area as the structures are non-transparent. Optical microscopes do not allow for a clear view of every and each element. However, a scanning electron microscope is capable of fulfilling the task as it magnifies the size of the object under scrutiny by a hundred thousand times. This is the device the researchers use. The main purpose of microtomography is to provide a view beneath the surface of the sample (‘tomography’ stands for section imaging).

Previously, the issue was addressed by studying the surface using a scanning microscope, then the upper layer was “removed” (with the help of chemical etching or ion beams) in order to look at the second layer, then the third, and so on. That of course was a destructive method. For visualising purposes, Professor Rau offers a medical analogy: it is similar to cutting off one body part of a patient after another to find a tumour.

Microchips are increasingly made multi-layered with a sandwich-like structure. A scanning electron microscope is used to look at each small element.

Later on, a group of Japanese and American researchers suggested another method or, to be precise, recovered an old method that had been invented 40 years ago at the onset of the scanning microscopy era. In essence, it required accelerating electrons focused in a probe to high energies. “Indeed, the more energy the initial electrons have, the father they get under the surface and provide the information from under the optically non-transparent surface, — comments Eduard Rau. — The only problem is that all reflected electrons get detected as well. The initial electron gets on the surface, then goes deeper, is reflected on a certain depth, and emerges again while gathering data concerning not only the layer where is was reflected — say, the third one — but also on the first and second ones. They all carry depth-integral data too. This way, we do get to see the first or the second layer of the sample but that view comes against a blurred background of the upper or lower layers. As a result, we acquire a multi-layered, blurred and clouded shadow.”

Professor Rau’s laboratory suggested a new mycrotomographic method allowing to get better-quality images of single thin layers of microstructure. The method is based on detecting a part of back-scattered electrons filtered by energy.

“The electrons that were reflected on a particular depth under the surface have respective energy which is inversely proportional to the depth of the reflected layer, — says Professor Rau. — The more the depth of the microheterogeneity in the three-dimensional structure, the longer path the electron takes and the more energy it loses, respectively. Detecting electrons of particular energy allows to visualise the sample layer on the specified depth.”

An original spectrometer with toroidal electrodes was used to analyse the electrons. The researchers adapted it for the scanning microscope in order to provide quality images.

STRF.ru reference:
The project of Development of Nanotomography Method and Building the Equipment for Measuring Geometric Parameters and Topology of Under-Surface Nanostructures was being carried out since 2008 to 2010, with the support of the Federal Task Program “Research and Development on Priority Directions for Russian Scientific and Technology Complex, 2007-2012.” The project budget was RUR20 million.

Simultaneous detecting of the electronically induced potential in the sample is necessary in order to acquire additional information on the distribution of potential barriers in the structure being studied. In this mode, a metallic ring placed immediately between the spectrometer and the surface of the structure being tested serves as a signal sensor. The signal is transmitted onto the microscope display, creating the image of all electrically active fragments of the semiconductor crystal or the chip.

The suggested method of simultaneous detecting of two informative video signals in the scanning microscope also allows to perform visual layerwise monitoring of the microstructure topological build by depth, and of electrically active microchip elements. The researchers point out that this diagnostic method is nondestructive and does not require electromechanical contacts for access to any elements of the microchip. That makes it useful for quality testing and control on every technological stage of device manufacturing. In other words, the methods can be applied both for testing of volumetric (three-dimensional) construction of thin-film multilayered micro- and nanostructures, and for mapping all electrically active elements of the sample under scrutiny (local potential barriers, semiconducting crystal flaws, impurities distribution, and recombination centre accumulation).

“We are still improving the methods, in particular by developing new models for quantity research — that is, not only to get electronic tomographic images but also to interpret the chemical composition as well as the depth of nanostructure fragments, — says Eduard Rau. — We address a complex task of quantity diagnostics of three-dimensional micro- and nanostructures.”

Marina Muravieva

Published by STRF.ru, “Nanotechnology in Russia” # 1-2 2011

All contemporary microelectronics is based on utilization of single-crystalline silicon, and it is unlikely that any other semiconductor will be able to supplant it in near future. During the past few years, researchers at Belgorod State University  (BelGU) have been investigating properties of carbonic coatings applied upon silicon. Such coatings enable to make the material harder and more resistant to mechanical failure. Besides, the coating allows to modify electrophysical properties of silicon as required. In their new work, Alexander Kolpakov  and his colleagues at the research laboratory of ion-plasmous technology development and implementation at Belgorod State University have investigated properties of carbonic coating alloyed by nitrogen atoms. The article about the research will be published in the next issue of the “Russian Nanotechnologies” journal. The research has been sponsored by Federal Target Program “Scientific and research and educational staff of innovative Russia ».

Carbonic coating properties are determined by the shape of electron clouds of carbon atoms. In case of sp³-hybridization of electron clouds, a carbon atom turns out to be inscribed into an imaginary pyramid with a triangular base: four electron clouds surrounding the nucleus diverge from each other at an angle of 109 degrees. Such electron structure is typical of diamond atoms. A large share of bonds with sp³-hybridization conditions high density of coating (up to 3 g/cm³) and a larger width of forbidden gap  (up to 5.5 eV). Increasing the share of sp²-hybridization atoms, which is typical of graphite, decreases the coating density and the forbidden gap width. Changing conditions of carbonic coating formation enables to control phase correlation and to obtain a material with preset properties.

The researchers have demonstrated that increasing the share of nitrogen atoms included in the carbonic coating augments the share of sp²-hybridization atoms and improves electroconductivity of the material. As a matter of fact, this happens only up to a certain limit: when there are too many nitrogen atoms, carbon nitride molecules are being formed in the coating, and electroconductivity begins to decrease again. The authors have also investigated dependence of coating properties on its depth. It has been found out that as the coating depth decreases, its specific conductance reduces.

Scanning of nitrogen-alloyed carbonic coating surfaces that were obtained via the scanning probe microscopy method. Illustration by the research authors

Investigation of the coating surface structure via scanning probe microscopy has proved that clusters from 10 through 100 nm in dimension (depending on the coating depth per se) are found in its structure. On their surface, electrophysical properties of the material change. Perhaps, these structural peculiarities will find application in electronics in the future.

An alloyed carbonic coating possesses semiconducting properties, and its electroconductivity can be controlled by changing the environment temperature. At the same time, electrophysical properties of the “silicon-coating” complex are changing. By applying carbon coatings with different nitrogen content, the forbidden gap width of the complex can be changed from 1.12 eV (the width of forbidden gap, which is typical of silicon) up to 0.19 eV. This property of coatings “make their application in nanotechnology and microelectronics promising”, the authors state.

Source of information:

A. Ya. Kolpakov, I.V. Sudzhanskaya, M.E. Galkina, I. Yu. Goncharov, A.I. Poplavsky, S.S. Manokhin “Influence of nitrogen alloyed degree  степени легирования азотом and width on electroconductivity and morphology of nano-dimensional carbonic coatings on silicon ”. Russian Nanotechnologies, # 3–4, 2011.

Kazantseva Anastasya

Researchers at the Institute of Automation and Electrometry (Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences)   and the Institute of Organic Chemistry (Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences) have for the first time designed a chemical sensor based on optical fiber, which selectively reacts to butylamine presence. The research has been sponsored by the Division of Physical Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences, integration project of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the State Program for Support of Leading Scientific Schools. The findings were published in the “Solid-State Physics” journal.

Amines – are ammonia derivatives. They are commonly used in the chemical industry but working with them requires strict safety technique adherence as multiple amines are very toxic. To timely detect leakage, it is necessary to install chemical sensors in the premises where work is being executed with these substances. However, the sensors applied currently possess low selectivity and high level of mulfunction.

Domestic researchers guided by Alexander Plekhanov have created a sensor that specifically detects butylamine – one of the most toxic and highly explosive amines. The sensor operation is based on the fact that luminescent dye molecules are able to change luminescence spectrum via binding with the toxic agent. These sensor-molecules were built into the matrix of silica nanoparticles applied on the optical fiber butt end.

The laser located at the fiber back-end inputs light impulses. In response to them, dye molecules emit their own luminescence, which is analyzed by the spectrometer. In an ordinary situation, the peak in the 660 nm area is well-seen in the nanofilm spectrum. Should the dye be bound with toxic butylamine, it disappears, and green-yellow luminescence appears at 560 nm wavelength.

The authors point out that the chemical reaction used by them is highly selective: spectrum change is observed when butylamine is added but not other similar substances. This means that probability of the system’s malfunction is very low. The researchers have also demonstrated that sensor sensitivity can be increased by changing molecular structure of the film that contains the dye. They have found out that applying an artificial opal “mirror” on the film and incorporation of silver nanoparticles in it allow to increase cumulative luminescence intensity by 10 times, “thus opening a prospect to creation of selective optical chemical sensors for remote monitoring”.

Source of information:

I.A. Boldov, A.S. Kouchianov, A.I. Plekhanov, N.A. Orlova, I. Yu. Kargapolova, V.V. Shelkovnikov “Fiber-optic chemical sensor for amine-type compounds”. Solid-State Physics, 2011, Vol. 53, issue 6.

Mikhail Petrov

Nanostructured silicon surfaces and silicon nanoparticles slow down the division of stem and cancer cells, and the combination of nanoparticles and ultrasound kill the cells. The research has been conducted at the Physics department of Moscow State University, the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, the I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, the Kulakov Research Centre for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, and the Kurchatov Institute Russian Research Centre. The researchers believe that the results of the study can be useful for medicine, in particular oncology. The research was conducted with partial support by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.

Silicon nanoparticles have several valuable properties: biocompatibility, biodegradation capability, and high penetration power. They can increase the permeability of cellular membranes making it possible to take high doses of the pharmaceutical substances bound with the particles. Also, silicon particles are planned to be used as a toothpaste additive as they can softly remove bacterial dental plaque without damaging the enamel. The nanoparticles can serve as a fine preservative because silicon particles inhibit the development pathogenic microorganisms in food products. That creates multiple reasons for introducing silicon nanoparticles into the organism. It is not surprising that their properties and their interaction with the cells are subject of active research in many laboratories including Russian ones.

The researchers used nanostructured silicon surfaces and silicon nanoparticles for their study. The nanostructured silicon were obtained by electrochemical etching of crystal silicon plates. As a result, a 15-micrometer-thick layer was formed on the plates which consisted of protuberances and cavities varying from 10 to 100 nanometers. The plates were then placed into Petri dishes containing nutrient medium in order to cultivate human spinal cord stem cells on their surfaces. The cells maintained their viability for ten days but performed practically no division, however, whereas they managed to propagate well in the similar medium but without the plates. The researchers believe that the mechanism of this effect can be associated with both local electric fields on the structured silicon surfaces and purely chemical action of orthosilicic acid which is generated due to partial dissolution of the plate in the water. As silicon films slow down the growth of stem cells it is theoretically possible to use them for cell preservation.

The second part of the experiment was associated with the properties of polycrystalline or porous silicon nanoparticles. These were added into the nutrient medium where the cells of human larynx tumour or mouse fibroblast cells were being cultivated.

It was not accidental that cancer cells were used in the experiment. Foreign researchers are attempting to purposefully introduce silicon nanoparticles bound with medicinal substances into tumour cells. In the experiments conducted by Russian researchers, the nanoparticles in concentrations over three mg per ml hindered the growth of cells of both types — normal and tumour ones.

Ultrasound is known to be able to increase the damaging action of nanoparticles. High-energy radiation (2 watt/cm²) in itself can destroy up to 30 per cent of the cells; the presence of nanoparticles decreases the amount of living cells by four times as compared to the reference sample (ultrasound with no nanoparticles) within half an hour. Porous silicon particles are more effective than those of polycrystalline silicon as in this case almost all cells are destroyed. Under the action of low-intensity ultrasound (0.2 watt/cm²) the cells containing nanoparticles did not die but their division ceased completely within 80 hours.

Nanoparticles might serve as centres of emergence of cavitation bubbles leading to cell destruction. It is possible that their oscillation in the ultrasound wave results in mechanical damage to the cells. Depending on the ultrasound power, the damage results in complete destruction of tumour cells or to the emergence of defects inhibiting their division. The researchers believe that the findings of the study can be used in oncology; however, it will take further explorations to identify full capabilities of silicon nanoparticles.

Natalia Reznik